Literary Movements

Whether you call yourself a voracious reader or not, literature has a significant influence on all our lives. Today's artistic endeavours, including films, television, YouTube, and even internet celebrities, owe a great deal to literature. Of course, trying to understand literature as a whole is a Herculean task. But one way to get an overview is to break it down into literary movements (or epochs).

What are 'literary movements'?

A literary movement or epoch is a body of literary works (plays, novels, novellas, serialised stories, poems) composed during a set time period, or era. This body of literary works is grouped together based on certain features, such as a common perspective, philosophy or ideology, aesthetic, school of thought, or its social, political and cultural influences.

Just as you have more than one opinion or philosophy or idea about the things that go on around you, so do literary texts and the authors or poets who compose them. This means there is often a considerable overlap between literary movements, whereby two different or even contradictory literary groups or philosophies coexist in the same period of time. When learning about literary movements and the literary canon, it is helpful to examine the circumstances that created a need for a certain idea, philosophy or perspective to be born and thrive.

Why are literary movements important?

While you could definitely read a literary text without knowing which literary movement it belongs to, knowing about the literary movement and time period it belongs to will certainly enhance your understanding and perhaps even your enjoyment of it. History and literature go hand in hand. Learning about the context of a work of literature and the literary movement it belong to, will result in a better appreciation of it and an enhanced ability to analyse it. You will not only have opinions but informed opinions on what you analyse.

Chronological Development of Literary Movements in England

Literary Movement Duration (approx.)

Old English 450-1066

Middle English 1066-1500

TheRenaissance 1500-1660

The Elizabethan Age 1558-1603

The Jacobean Age 1603-1625

The Restoration Period 1660-1700

The Romantic Period 1785-1832

The Victorian Period 1832-1901

Modernism 1914-1945

Postmodernism 1945 - present

Old English (450-1066)

Overview

The Old English period lasted from circa. 450 CE till the Norman conquest in 1066 CE. Old English is the earliest form of written English, and was influenced by the languages of the Anglo-Saxons, as well as Latin. At the time, there was linguistic exchange among the countries of Western Europe, particularly Germany, Italy and France. This is why we can find traces of German, Latin and French in Old English (and also in modern day English). The Anglos, Saxons and Jutes took up residence in Britain, bringing their language and culture with them.

In this period, Latin was the language of scholars (and education), so it had a wide range of vocabulary, including words for flora and fauna, elements and metals, domestic objects and all kinds of medical, social, political and military concepts. The Vikings had already established their presence in Britain by this time and further influenced popular speech. Old Norse is said to have introduced third person plural pronouns to English. King Alfred (c. 849-899) is credited with encouraging the spread of education in Britain. Old English began to lose its inflectional endings along with other linguistic changes, which brought about a transition from Old English to what became Middle English.

Key Works

1. Beowulf (c. 700-1000 CE): Beowulf , the author of which is unknown, is one of the most translated works in Old English. It is an 'epic poem' written in the Germanic Heroic tradition and consists of approximately 3180 lines. At first, the work contained mainly pagan elements, to which Christian elements were later added. The work features the hero Beowulf, who defeats a number of monsters and enemies to eventually reign as King of the Geats. Modern translations of the Beowulf are by Seamus Heaney and JRR Tolkien. As professor in the Medieval faculty at Oxford, Tolkien was an expert in Old and Middle English, and you can see the influence of Beowulf in the Lord of the Rings trilogy.
2. Cædmon 's Hymn ( c . 731 CE): Cædmon's Hymn was composed by a Northumbrian monk named the Venerable Bede, and is about an illiterate herder who is touched by God and sings in his honour. Some pages of the poem can be found in the Bodleian Library in Oxford.

Middle English (1066-1500)

Overview

The Middle English period lasted for approximately 300 years. The Norman conquest of 1066 significantly impacted the grammar, spelling, pronunciation and vocabulary of Old English. Middle English is remarkably close to English as we know it today. A large portion of texts from this period are religious, along with some fictional texts. Even these contain religious themes and symbols. Around the year 1400, the Great Vowel Shift commenced, bringing considerable change to English pronunciation.

The Great Vowel Shift lasted from c. 1400-1700 and marked a shift in English pronunciation. There was a considerable change in long vowel sounds, as well as the silencing of some consonants. This was a result of the migration of large groups of people leading to a mixing of accents and French influence as a result of the Norman conquest, as well as the war with France.

Key Works

1. The Canterbury Tales : Geoffrey Chaucer's The Canterbury Tales (c. 1387) is the most well-known works of this period. Chaucer is a notable author who had a significant influence on the development of the English literary canon. The work, which is unfinished, survives in 92 manuscripts and consists of stories told by a group of pilgrims while on a pilgrimage from the Tabard Inn in Southwark to the shrine of St Thomas Becket in Canterbury, hence the title. While Chaucer had planned for a 100 tales, only 24 survive.
2. La Morte d'Arthur : Written by Thomas Malory and published in 1485, the work features stories about the legendary King of Camelot, King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table. It is one of the most important texts of Arthurian literature and features themes of chivalry and honour.

The Renaissance (1500-1660)

Overview

The Renaissance as a movement originated in Western Europe, primarily in Italy, and was based on principles of humanism. The renaissance marks the rebirth of society, culture and art in the renewed enthusiasm for classical culture, leading to innovation and reform all across Europe. The Renaissance significantly manifested in art, architecture, literature, scientific progress and technology, as well as politics. The Renaissance also marked the rise of figures such as Leonardo Da Vinci, Michaelangelo in Italy, and notable authors such as William Shakespeare, Christopher Marlowe and Edmund Spenser in England.

KeyWorks

1. The Faerie Queene : Edmund Spenser's The Faerie Queene (1590) is an epic poem and pioneered a stanza style which became known as 'Spenserian stanza', featuring 9-line blocks of verse. The first 8 lines of the Spenserian stanza are written in the iambic pentameter and the final one in the iambic hexameter. The titular character is said to have been based on Queen Elizabeth I, who granted patronage to Spenser.
2. Shakespeare wrote Romeo and Juliet (1597) and Macbeth (1603). Both plays contain universal themes of love and envy.
3. Paradise Lost : John Milton's seminal work, Paradise Lost (1667) is an epic English poem narrating the expulsion of Adam and Eve from the Garden of Eden and the fall of the devil.

The Elizabethan Age (1558-1603)

Overview

The title of this literary movement is derived from the then reigning Queen of England, Elizabeth I. A great patron of the arts, Queen Elizabeth I invited artists to perform for her and her court, including William Shakespeare. She was a poet herself, and proved to be a competent ruler. She survived numerous assassination attempts and is credited with defeating the Spanish Armada. She portrayed herself as 'The Virgin Queen' (for example in paintings of herself) to signify that she was married to Britain. Due to her patronage, art thrived during her reign, and is therefore often dubbed 'The Golden Age.' Because of her immense popularity, numerous works have characters that allude to her, such as Edmund Spenser's The Faerie Queene .

Keyworks

As you will notice, there is some overlap between the Renaissance and the Elizabethan Age, with some literary texts in common. Apart from those mentioned in the Renaissance section, other popular works during the Elizabethan Era include:

1. The Tragical History of Doctor Faustus (1592) by Christopher Marlowe, which was inspired by Goethe's original.
2. Every Man in His Humor (1598) written by Ben Johnson, who is regarded as the second most important English dramatist after William Shakespeare.

The Jacobean Age (1603-1625)

Overview

Like the Elizabethan Age, the Jacobean Age is named after the reigning monarch, King James I. It is called the 'Jacobean' era rather than the 'Jamesian' era as 'Jacobus' is the Latin version of the King's name. The Jacobean style can be identified in works of literature, architecture, visual arts and decor.

KeyWorks

1. The works collected by Francis Bacon: Francis Bacon was an influential figure of the Jacobean Age in the fields of literature as well as science. He is recognised as the father of empiricism, which is a method for research and data collection. Some of his notable works are Advancement in Learning (1605), Novum Organum (1620), Essays (1625), Masculine Birth of Time (1605).
2. Shakespeare's life spanned the Elizabethan Age as well as the Jacobean Age. During the reign of King James I, he produced King Lear (1606) and The Tempest (c. 1610) . His theater group was granted royal patronage and consequently became known as the King's Men rather than the Lord Chamberlain's Men. The King's Men also included what were considered celebrities of the time, Lawrence Fletcher and Richard Burbage.

The Restoration Period (1660-1700)

Overview

We call this epoch the Restoration period because of the restoration of the English monarchy. In 1649, the English monarch, Charles I was executed, and the country was ruled by senior ministers and officers of Parliament and the Council of State under the Lord Protector, Oliver Cromwell. This continued up to the arrival of the King's son, Charles II in 1660. The period without any reigning king is known as the Interregnum . Upon the arrival of Charles II, the English monarchy was restored. The literature produced during this period is referred to as Restoration literature as a significant amount of it was a reaction to the restoration. During the interregnum, Puritanism and an austere lifestyle were imposed, so literary works from the Restoration period and comment on life before Restoration.

Key Works

1. Restoration Drama: Plays in the Restoration period are divided into genres, and include Heroic drama (John Dryden's The Conquest of Granada from 1670), the Restoration comedy (William Wycherly's The Country Wife from 1675), and Restoration spectacular or the machine play .
2. Prose: During the Restoration period, prose varied from religious to philosophical to journalistic. Fiction was also becoming increasingly popular. Key works include John Bunyan's The Pilgrim's Progress (1678), John Locke's Two Treatises of Government (1689), and Aphra Behn's Love-Letters Between a Nobleman and His Sister (1684). Other notable authors of the Restoration period include William Temple and Izaak Walton.

The Romantic Period (1785-1832)

Overview

The Romantic period developed its distinctive characteristics as a reaction to neoclassicism.* The Romantics valued chivalry, honour, union with nature, the expression of emotions, and a sense of individualism, which features in most texts of the period. The two generations of Romantic poets contributed significantly to the English literary canon. It was during this period that a challenge was issued by a group of authors and poets holidaying in Switzerland. The challenge, issued by Lord Byron, was to write a ghost story, which suited the atmosphere of Villa Diodati, where they were residing at the time. The winner of this challenge was Mary Shelley, who produced her seminal work Frankenstein (1818) and consequently became a notable author. The Romantic Period was significantly influenced by the social, political and cultural happenings of the time, particularly the Industrial Revolution and the Enlightenment*.

Neoclassicism (as the name suggests) drew inspiration from classicism. Neoclassic texts paid homage to classical texts, such as those by Greek writers Sophocles and Aristotle. Neoclassical literature is characterised by reason, rationale, accuracy, and order. An example of a neoclassical work is John Dryden's Of Dramatick Poesie : An Essay (1668).

The Age of Enlightenment ran parallel to and coincided with neoclassicism. The main features of the Enlightenment were: the pursuit of knowledge, the application of reason, and scientific progress. Emphasis was also placed on human happiness, diversity, tolerance, freedom, and a sense of community. An example of a work from the Age of Enlightenment is Voltaire's Candide (1759).

KeyWorks

1. Poetry: The first generation of Romantic poets includes William Blake, Samuel Taylor Coleridge, and William Wordsworth. The second generation of Romantic poets includes Lord Byron, Percy B Shelley and John Keats. These poets contributed significantly to the English literary canon. Some of their most important works include Lyrical Ballads (1798), Songs of Innocence and Experience (1794), She Walks in Beauty (1814), Ozymandias (1818), Ode to Autumn (1819). Scottish poets too, produced romantic poetry, such as Robert Burns A Red, Red Rose (1794) . The figure of the Byronic hero was established in works by Lord Byron, particularly the epic poem, Don Juan (1819).
2. Prose: The Romantic novel was a product of this period. Mary Shelley produced Frankenstein (1818), which had Romantic influences and also expressed a fascination with gothicism, galvanism, and electricity. Jane Austen's works too, criticised the institution of marriage and sensibility. The Scottish novelist Sir Walter Scott produced the immensely popular Ivanhoe (1819), and the historical novel Rob Roy (1817).
3. Drama: The second generation of Romantics attempted to write for the stage but not all their attempts were successful, and it was the plays of Shakespeare that continued to dominate the stage.

The Victorian Period (1832-1901)

Overview

Just like the Elizabethan Age, the Victorian period is named after England's monarch, Queen Victoria, who was crowned in 1837. While Romanticism continued to be popular, Victorian literature tended towards mysticism, spiritualism and the supernatural. Gothic fiction became popular. There was immense progress in technology, science, evolution, medicine and industry, and these aspects feature in Victorian literature. The treatment of women and children was also an important topic of discussion in Victorian literature. Serialised publications also became popular. Charles Dickens published numerous stories in instalments. While he aimed to entertain audiences, he often used his publications as a means to offer commentary on and to criticise certain aspects of Victorian society.

The Victorian novel became so popular and appealing that today the 'neo-Victorian novel' is a popular genre. Neo-Victorian texts, although written in modern times, are set in the Victorian age and often feature the 'asylum' trope. Additionally, reading culture transformed as periodicals and pamphlets became popular and libraries increased the desire to read.

KeyWorks

1. Jane Eyre : Charlotte Bronte's novel (published in 1847) continues to be popular and has been adapted into numerous films, limited series, and retellings.
2. Wuthering Heights : Similar to the work of her sister, Emily Bronte's Wuthering Heights (1847) is an enduring work of literature.
3. Works by Charles Dickens: Some of these were originally published serially. Works by Dickens include Oliver Twist (1837-9), Nicholas Nickleby (1838-9), A Christmas Carol (1843) and Great Expectations ( 1860-61 ).
4. Victorian Poetry: Poets such as Robert Browning ( The Pied Piper of Hamelin published in 1842), Elizabeth Barrett Browning ( Poems published in 1844) and Alfred Tennyson ( Break, Break, Break (1842) and Crossing the Bar (1889)) published their poetry in the Victorian period.
5. Works by Oscar Wilde were also published during the Victorian period, but adhere more appropriately to another literary period called fin de siècle. Fin de siècle translates to 'turn of the century' and as a literary movement is marked by Hellenism, decadence, cynicism and ennui. A good example of work from this period is Wilde's The Picture of Dorian Gray (1891).

Modernism (1914-1945)

Overview

As society progressed, particularly in fields of science and technology, there was a renewed desire for innovation in art and philosophy. Innovations in technology such as photography, the moving picture, stream-of-consciousness, and a sense of self-reflection permeated works emerging from this period. Abstractism and formalism also became key features of modernism. Writers broke away with established literary traditions to highlight self-consciousness and the fragmented nature of memory and contemporary society. Furthermore, Freudian and Jungian theories also had a significant influence on literature. Notable authors and poets from this period include James Joyce, TS Eliot, WB Yeats, Samuel Beckett and Virginia Woolf.

KeyWorks

1. Ulysses : James Joyce's text published in 1922 is a modernist novel that features stream-of-consciousness where the character Leopold Bloom records his thoughts as he walks through Dublin on an ordinary day in 1904.
2. The Wasteland : This poem published in 1922 by TS Eliot is remarkable for its introspective and dark tone that is characteristic of modernism
3. Works by Virginia Woolf: Woolf was famous for employing the narrative device of stream of consciousness in her novels, such as Mrs. Dalloway .

Postmodernism (1945 - present)

Overview

Though numerous scholars disagree on the term, with some employing 'metamodernism' or 'posthumanism,' a large number of scholars call the literary period following modernism post-modernism, as it is seen as a reaction against its predecessor. Postmodernism, like modernism, is characterised by fragmented narratives and introspection, but rejects the 'grand narratives' of literary works. Instead it uses skepticism, self-referential techniques and obscurantism - arguing against simple narrations and concrete binary oppositions (such as female/male, self/other, object/subject). Postmodernists believe in accurately reflecting the current state of society, which is broken, disconnected, obscure, irrational and multifaceted. Numerous literary theories flourished with the influence of postmodernism such as feminist theory, queer theory and ecocriticism.

KeyWorks

1. Wide Sargasso Sea : This novel by Jean Rhys published in 1966 was written as a prequel to the events that transpired in Charlotte Bronte's Jane Eyre and criticise patriarchy, colonialism and assimilation.
2. As a result of globalisation and urbanisation, postmodernism spread all over the world, and some famous postmodernists include Umberto Eco from Italy, who wrote The Name of the Rose (1980) and Kurt Vonnegut, who wrote Slaughterhouse-Five (1969), Margaret Atwood, who wrote Oryx and Crake (2003), Toni Morrison, who wrote Beloved (1987) and EL Doctorow, who wrote Ragtime (1975) and The March (2005).

Understanding Literary Movements

Literary movements do not have a clear, black and white boundary. There is some overlap with other movements and periods, and some texts may adopt only some features of a movement while distancing themselves from others. Furthermore, the examples mentioned are only a very small number of works in the English literary canon. When writing about literary movements, think of the historical context and the political, social, economical and technological influences on the author or poet.

Literary Movements - Key takeaways

• Literary movements have certain common characteristics in a body of literary works. These characteristics were influenced by the social and political circumstances in which they were written.
• Literary movements often overlap, and there may be various schools of thought concurrently during any given period
• Key literary movements include:
• 1. Old English
• 2. Middle English
• 3. Renaissance
• 4. The Elizabethan Age
• 5. The Jacobean Age
• 6. The Restoration Period
• 7. The Romantic Period
• 8. The Victorian Period
• 9. Modernism
• 10. Postmodernism